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Originally published online as doi:10.1189/jlb.0907606 on April 7, 2008

Published online before print April 7, 2008
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(Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 2008;84:207-214.)
© 2008 by Society for Leukocyte Biology

Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) promotes neutrophil degranulation and MMP-9 release

Eloy Cuadrado*,1, Laura Ortega*,1, Mar Hernández-Guillamon*, Anna Penalba*, Israel Fernández-Cadenas*, Anna Rosell*,{dagger} and Joan Montaner*,2

* Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Neurovascular Unit, Department of Neurology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Institut de Recerca, Hospital Vall d’Hebron, Barcelona, Spain; and
{dagger} Neuroprotection Research Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Program in Neuroscience, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

2Correspondence: Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Neurovascular Unit, Institut de Recerca, Hospital Vall d’Hebron, Pg Vall d’Hebron 119-129, 08035 Barcelona, Spain. E-mail: 31862jmv{at}comb.es


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ABSTRACT
 
Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA), the only approved stroke treatment, is used for clot lysis within the occluded brain artery. Unfortunately, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) concentration increases after t-PA treatment and has been related to hemorrhagic transformation after ischemic stroke. Although the exact cellular source of brain MMP-9 remains unknown, invading, inflammatory cells, such as neutrophils, release MMP-9 to cross the blood brain barrier. Therefore, we hypothesize that the most feared side effect of stroke reperfusion therapy, brain hemorrhage, is related to t-PA-induced MMP-9 release by neutrophils. We show by means of ELISA that t-PA treatment promotes MMP-9, MMP-8, and tissue inhibitor metalloproteinase-2 release from human neutrophils ex vivo within 10 and 30 min. Moreover, by zymography and Western blot, we observed that neutrophils are emptied of MMP-9 content after t-PA treatment at those times. Finally, total internal reflection fluorescent imaging allowed us to observe the t-PA effect on neutrophils, showing the promotion of degranulation on these cells in vivo. Our data suggest that neutrophils are good candidates to be the main source of MMP-9 following t-PA stroke treatment and in consequence, partially responsible for thrombolysis-related brain bleedings.

Key Words: stroke • hemorrhage • TIRF • TIMP-2 • plasmin


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INTRODUCTION
 
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) constitute a family of extracellular soluble or membrane-bound proteases that can degrade or proteolytically modify all the extracellular matrix main components, including collagens, laminin, and proteoglycans, all them relevant pieces of the blood brain barrier (BBB).

MMP-9, or gelatinase-B, has been suggested to play a role in the pathogenesis of neurological disorders, including cerebral ischemia [1 ]. MMP-9 is elevated in humans after stroke in plasma [2 ] and in the brain infarction [3 4 5 ]. The exact cellular source of MMP-9 remains unknown, and although brain endothelium, astrocytes, and neurons may release MMP-9 [5 ], the invading, inflammatory-activated cells, such as neutrophils, can also release MMP-9 to cross the BBB [5 , 6 ] after brain ischemia. In fact, leukocyte-derived MMP-9 mediates BBB breakdown after transient focal cerebral ischemia [7 ] and other neuroinflammatory conditions [8 ].

Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) is the only drug approved for stroke treatment that promotes clot lysis within the occluded brain artery. However, t-PA may also have other signaling properties that would increase risks of cell death, BBB leakage, edema, and hemorrhage [9 ]. Actually, brain bleedings are the most feared side effect of thrombolytic therapy, occurring in 5–10% of cases with high mortality rates [10 ].

MMP-9 expression has been related to hemorrhagic transformation after cardioembolic stroke [11 ], and its blood concentration increased after t-PA treatment [12 ]. Interestingly, pharmacological or genetic inhibition of MMP-9 significantly decreases infarct size and the risk of hemorrhagic complications [13 , 14 ].

Recently, in human post-mortem brain studies, neutrophil infiltration in the infarct areas has been reported to increase local MMP-9 levels closely related to basal lamina collagen IV degradation and BBB breakdown associated to hemorrhagic complications after stroke [15 ].

Hence, it is possible that deleterious induction of hemorrhage after t-PA reperfusion is related to release of MMP-9 stored in neutrophils. Therefore, in the present study, we aimed to investigate the effect of t-PA treatment ex vivo on human neutrophil degranulation and MMP-9 release.


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MATERIALS AND METHODS
 
Neutrophil isolation and cell culture
Human granulocytes were isolated using a standard protocol from the blood of nine healthy subjects (five females, four males; mean age, 30.3 years; range, 24–47) by Percoll (GE Healthcare, Piscataway, NJ, USA) density gradient centrifugation [16 ]. Briefly, K2EDTA (BD Vacutainer®) tubes were used to collect the blood. Percoll gradients with a density of 1.088 were prepared by mixing 9.5 mL PercollTM with 1.5 mL PBS (10x) and 4 mL H2O. Cell suspension was diluted 1:5 with PBS buffer. Immediately, Percoll gradient and cell suspension were overlaid without mixing phases and centrifuged at 400 g for 30 min at 20°C. Then, white cell layer was collected, transferred to a new tube, and diluted again 1:5 with PBS (1x).

Diluted cell suspension was centrifuged again at 300 g for 15 min at 20°C. Supernatant was carefully removed, the cell pellet was resuspended in 2 mL PBS, and remaining RBCs were lysed by adding 50 mL lysis buffer (155 mM NH4Cl, 10 mM KHCO3, 0.1 mM EDTA) for 5 min at room temperature. Then, tubes were centrifuged at 300 g for 10 min at 20°C, supernatant was carefully removed, and cells were washed twice with PBS.

Finally, cell pellet was resuspended in 4 mL RPMI-1640 cell culture medium (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) containing 50 µg/mL streptomycin and 50 U/mL penicillin (Gibco BRL, Grand Island, NY, USA). Cell counting was performed using the trypan blue exclusion assay.

Cell treatments
After isolation, 400.000 cells/mL were plated onto 24 poly-L-lysine-precoated wells in RPMI-1640 media without FBS. After 2 h in an incubator at 37°C and 5% CO2, cells were treated with 6.2 µM (0.3 mg/mL) t-PA (Boehringer Ingelheim, Germany) or 10–7 M fMLP (Sigma-Aldrich) for different periods of time (10, 15, or 30 min). Nontreated cells were used as controls.

After treatment, supernatant was removed and centrifuged at 12,000 g for 12 min at 4°C and transferred to a new tube and kept at –80°C.

Remaining cells were lysed with 100 µl lysis buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 150 Mm NaCl, 5 mM CaCl2, 0.05% Brij-35, 0.02% NaN3, and 1% Triton X-100) containing protease inhibitors (1 mM PMSF and 7 µg/ml aprotinin) for 12 min at 4°C. Finally, tubes were centrifuged at 12,000 g for 12 min at 4°C, and supernatant was transferred to a new tube and kept frozen at –80°C.

Cell viability
Cell viability was assessed using a fluorescent live/dead cell assay following the manufacturer’s protocol (Molecular Probes-Invitrogen, Paisley, UK). After treatment with t-PA, cells were exposed to calcein/AM and ethidium homodimer-1 (EthD-1) and viewed using an Olympus IX71 fluorescence microscope. Calcein/AM is adsorbed by living cells and becomes a substrate for cytosolic esterases, which convert it into a green fluorescent product, whereas EthD-1 is able to enter only in cells with compromised cell membrane integrity and becomes red fluorescent after its attachment to nucleic acids.

Gelatin zymography
Substrate-specific zymography for determination of gelatinolytic activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 was performed on cell supernatants (n=9 per time-point). Equal volumes mixed 1:1 with loading buffer [80 mM Tris-HCl (pH 6.8), 4% SDS, 10% glycerol, 0.01% bromphenol blue] were loaded. Proteins were separated by electrophoresis in SDS-PAGE gels containing 0.1% gelatin (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) at 100 V constant current. Following electrophoresis, gels were washed to remove SDS with 2.5% Triton X-100 for 1 h and incubated 48 h at 37°C with incubation buffer containing 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 10 mM CaCl2, and 0.02% NaN3. Enzymatic bands were visualized after staining for 1 h with amido black 0.1% and distained for 30 min with a solution of 30% (v/v) methanol and 10% (v/v) glacial acetic acid. To measure gelatinase activities, gels were read using the Gel Logic 440 imaging system (Kodak, Rochester, NY, USA), and the intensity of the bands (arbitrary units) was normalized to the untreated control sample in each experimental set (1D Image Analysis software, Kodak).

Immunoblotting
MMP-9 protein content was detected by Western blot in cell lysates (n=3 per time-point). Briefly, an equal protein amount (3 µg) was loaded in Laemmli buffer with SDS-PAGE (12%) at 100 V. Separated proteins were transferred to a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane using a Transblot cell (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA) during 1 h at 100 V. Nonspecific bindings were blocked with 10% milk before membranes were incubated overnight at 4°C with mouse anti-human MMP-9 antibody (Chemicon, El Segundo, CA, USA) at 1:500 dilution. Secondary antibody goat anti-mouse HRP (Chemicon) was diluted 1:1000 and incubated at room temperature for 1 h. Before and after incubations, membranes were washed three times (10 min each) with Tween-TBS. The substrate reaction was developed with the chemiluminescent reagent Immobilon (Millipore, UK) and visualized with a luminescent image analyzer (Las-3000, Fujifilm, Valhalla, NY, USA). Immunodetection of GAPDH (Ambion, Austin, TX, USA) was performed to verify that equal amounts of total protein were loaded for each sample.

Multiplexed MMP array
SearchLight® human MMP Array 1 (Pierce, Rockford, IL, USA) was used to measure supernatant MMP content (n=4 per time-point); this assay consists of multiplexed sandwich ELISA, which is permitted to assess up to nine proteins at the same time: gelatinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9), collagenases (MMP-1, MMP-8, and MMP-13), stromelysines (MMP-3 and MMP-10), and MMP endogen inhibitors [tissue inhibitor metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) and TIMP-2]. Each sample was assayed in duplicate, and data are expressed as the mean value of both measurements. The mean intra-assay coefficients of variation were <15% for all measurements. The enzyme-substrate reaction produces a chemiluminescent signal detected with a cooled charged-coupled device (CCD) camera (Pierce). The images were analyzed by ArrayVision Version 8.0 software (Imaging Research, Ontario, Canada). Standard curves and all results are expressed in pg/mL units.

Total internal reflection fluorescent (TIRF) microscopy
Neutrophils (1.5x105 cells/mL) were plated on 35 x 10 mm glass-bottom (12 mm) WillCo-dishTM plates (GWSt-3512, WillCo Wells B.V, The Netherlands). Cells were maintained in RPMI-1640 medium (R7509, Sigma-Aldrich) without bromophenol red at 37°C.

Neutrophils were incubated with 2.5 µM acridine orange for 10 min at room temperature as described elsewhere [17 ]. Immediately, prior to TIRF imaging, cells were treated with or without 9.3 µM t-PA.

Imaging was carried out using an Olympus multidimensional-TIRFM cell-R IX81-inverted microscope with a Planapo 100xO/TIRFM NA 1.45 objective and through-the-objective TIRF illumination using a 488-nm argon multilane 25 mW laser. During all time imaging, cells were maintained at 37°C and 5% CO2.

Time-lapse sequences were acquired at a continuous rate of 12.5 frames/s with a 46-ms exposure per frame in a 300-times cycle. Time-lapse acquisition was done with a Hamamatsu C9100-02 digital monochrome electron multiplying CCD camera. All TIRF image processing was performed with ImageJ software (National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA).

Statistics
Statistical analyses were performed by use of the SPSS 12.0 package. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to determine variable distribution. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to assess intergroup differences. A value of P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.


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RESULTS
 
t-PA treatment promotes MMP-9 release in neutrophils ex vivo
After treatment, neutrophil cell suspensions were centrifuged, and supernatants were analyzed by gelatin zymography.

MMP-9 monomer was detected at the expected molecular weight of 92 kDa, but also, the MMP-9/neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) heterodimer was detected at 130 kDa as described by others [18 ] (Fig. 1A ). Gelatin zymography showed no MMP-2 band in any sample.


Figure 1
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  		Figure 1. t-PA treatment promotes neutrophil MMP-9 release in vitro. (A) Representative gelatin zymography showing MMP-9 release in supernatants of controls (C) and treated neutrophils at 10 or 30 min after t-PA addition. (B) Bar graph represents mean values and SEM of MMP-9 content. (C) Bar graph showing percentage of MMP-9 in all studied cases at each time-point to represent the differences between individuals. Normalized band intensity was calculated as a percentage of the untreated controls.

In all cases, MMP-9 intensity increased in supernatants of t-PA-treated cells at 10 (P=0.04) and 30 (P<0.01) min after treatment when compared with control, nontreated cells. However, no differences were found between the two treatment time-points (P=0.853; Fig. 1B ). We identified individual differences in the MMP-9 release by neutrophils after t-PA exposition. In fact, five cases showed a MMP-9 release peak at 30 min after treatment, and three cases showed a "fast release" of MMP-9 already at 10 min after t-PA addition (Fig. 1C) . Demographic data (age, sex, habits) of all subjects were studied, but no feature was related to this characteristic pattern (data not shown).

Neutrophils "emptied" of MMP-9 content after t-PA treatment
MMP-9 content from cell lysates was studied by means of Western blotting using a mAb against human MMP-9.

Results showed that t-PA stimulation produces a gradual reduction of MMP-9 content in cell lysates (P=0.024; Fig. 2A ). MMP-9 band intensity decreased at 10 (P=0.037) and 30 (P=0.037) min after t-PA addition when compared with nontreated control, opposite and complementary to the pattern observed in supernatants (Fig. 2B) . These data suggest that these neutrophils had been emptied of MMP-9 by t-PA stimulation. No t-PA toxic effect was observed on cells at any time, as confirmed by fluorescent cell viability assay (Fig. 4 ).


Figure 2
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  		Figure 2. t-PA stimulation produces a gradual reduction of neutrophil MMP-9 content in vitro. (A) Representative Western blot showing the MMP-9 band in untreated controls and treated cells at 10 or 30 min after t-PA treatment. GAPDH was used as loading control. (B) Bar graph represents mean values and SEM of total MMP-9. Normalized band intensity was calculated as a percentage of the untreated controls.


Figure 4
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  		Figure 4. t-PA administration to human neutrophils for 30 min does not induce cytotoxicity. Representative images from an untreated, control sample and neutrophils treated with t-PA for 30 min. (A and C) Correspond to the calcein/AM signal, which is adsorbed by living cells. (B and D) Correspond to the EthD-1 signal, which only produces fluorescence after its attachment to nucleic acids in death cells (original magnification, 10x).

t-PA treatment also promotes MMP-9 release in fMLP-preactivated neutrophils
Next, to determine whether activated neutrophils also responded to t-PA treatment, they were exposed to fMLP. It has been widely described that the formyl peptide (fMLP), a bacterial chemoattractant, is able to stimulate neutrophils in vitro [19 , 20 ].

Cells were preincubated for 15 min with 10–7 M fMLP before t-PA stimulation during 15 min. Gelatinase activity was measured in supernatants by zymography (Fig. 3A ). When cells were treated only with fMLP for 15 min, we observed an increase in MMP-9 release, as described previously [20 ], although the obtained values (n=4) were not significantly different to control samples (P=0.343; empty column, Fig. 3B ). As expected, 15 min t-PA treatment induced the secretion of MMP-9 (P=0.029; gray column, Fig. 3B ). When activated neutrophils, prestimulated with fMLP for 15 min, were rinsed and treated with t-PA in fresh medium for another 15 min, they still promoted an important and significant MMP-9 release compared with untreated cells (P=0.029; black column, Fig. 3B ).


Figure 3
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  		Figure 3. t-PA treatment promotes MMP-9 release in fMLP-preactivated neutrophils. (A) Representative gelatin zymography showing MMP-9 release in supernatants of control, fMLP-treated neutrophils for 15 min (empty column, B), tPA-treated neutrophils for 15 min (gray column, B), and activated neutrophils prestimulated with fMLP for 15 min and treated with t-PA in fresh medium for the other 15 min (black column, B). (B) Bar graph represents mean values and SEM of MMP-9 content. Normalized band intensity was calculated as a percentage of the untreated controls. rt-PA, Recombinant t-PA.

Neutrophil MMP release pattern after t-PA exposition in vitro
SearchLight® human MMP array was used to measure supernatant MMP levels. This array allowed us to detect nine different molecules per assay (Fig. 5A and 5B ). Supernatants from nontreated or t-PA-treated cells were measured using this technique. Three molecules increased their levels in a time-dependent manner after t-PA addition when compared with nontreated supernatants.


Figure 5
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  		Figure 5. Increased MMP-8, MMP-9, and TIMP-2 levels in neutrophils after t-PA exposition in vitro. (A) Schematic figure representing a Searchlight® protein array well. (B) Two wells corresponding to a representative case of supernatant from an untreated control and a t-PA-treated sample at 30 min. (C) Bar graphs represent mean values and SEM of different MMPs. All data are expressed in pg protein per mL. Unchanged proteins are not shown.

MMP-8 (P=0.049), MMP-9 (P=0.018), and TIMP-2 (P=0.01) appeared to be released to media after 30 min of treatment. All time-points were statistically significant when compared with its nontreated control (Fig. 5C) . No statistical differences were found between 10- and 30-min time-points for MMP-8 or MMP-9, although there was a significant difference in TIMP-2 levels between 10 and 30 min (P=0.043).

All other molecules were undetectable or showed invariable levels in cell supernatants after t-PA treatment.

TIRF analysis of neutrophil degranulation after t-PA treatment
The pretreatment staining with acridine orange allowed us to observe fluorescent granules in live cells within the evanescent wave by TIRF microscopy (Fig. 6A ).


Figure 6
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  		Figure 6. t-PA treatment causes fusion of neutrophil granules with the plasma membrane. (A) Neutrophils observed under TIRF microscopy. Granules are seen as bright spots as a result of acridine orange staining. (B) Sequential images obtained every 80 ms from amplified fields corresponding to squares in A. Arrowheads show the spot corresponding to an individual granule fusion seen as a brightening and vanishing of fluorescence.

Cells were monitored by TIRF microscopy for real-time images of fusion granules with sequential images acquired every 80 ms. All images were obtained during the first 15–20 min after t-PA addition to media.

We found that t-PA treatment stimulates neutrophil degranulation. Fusion was observed as a suddenly brightening and vanishing fluorescent spot as described previously for other cells types [21 ] (Fig. 6B) . Sequential images of single granule docking and fusion with the plasma membrane under t-PA stimulation are presented. No granule fusion events were observed in nontreated cells.


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DISCUSSION
 
This study demonstrates that t-PA promotes neutrophil MMP-9 degranulation. Four subsets of membrane-bound compartments exist in neutrophils: secretory vesicles, gelatinase (tertiary) granules, specific (secondary) granules, and azurophil (primary) granules [22 , 23 ]. MMP-9 has been described to be in at least three of these granules; a proteomic study of human neutrophil granules reported the presence of MMP-9 in gelatinase, specific, and azurophil granules [24 ].

Our results confirm neutrophils as an important source of extracellular MMP-9 and demonstrate release of neutrophil MMP-9 after t-PA treatment. In cerebral ischemia, MMP-9 brain production is enhanced by t-PA [25 ], and plasma level is also increased in patients who receive t-PA [12 ]. Moreover, patients with higher plasma MMP-9 levels are more prone to suffer brain bleedings after t-PA [26 ]. Extrapolating our ex vivo data to the in vivo situation, we might explain those results as a degranulation of MMP-9 into the bloodstream following t-PA treatment. Recently, mast cell degranulation has also been linked with t-PA-related hemorrhagic transformation in experimental ischemic stroke [27 ].

A study from our group, analyzing human brain infarct samples, showed a neutrophil infiltration in the infarct areas increasing local MMP-9 levels around the microvessels as well as basal lamina collagen IV degradation and BBB disruption [15 ]. Again, we may hypothesize that if t-PA is administered when neutrophils are transmigrating across the BBB, a t-PA-induced degranulation at that site would induce an important disruption of the BBB and might be responsible for dramatic bleedings occurring among t-PA-treated stroke patients. Moreover, this might also explain the increased risk of bleeding in other territories, in that fibrynolitic drugs are also used, especially when an inflammatory milieu is present [28 ].

Neutrophil-derived MMP-9 differs from MMP-9 expressed by other cell types in two major ways [29 ]. First, mature neutrophils do not synthesize MMP-9 de novo. Rather, MMP-9 is produced during the late stages of maturation of neutrophil precursors in the bone marrow and stored in its latent form before its release into the extracellular space following neutrophil activation [30 ]. Second, pro-MMP-9 is not released from activated human neutrophils complexed to TIMP-1. Rather, MMP-9 is released from neutrophils in three different forms: 92 kDa monomers, 200 kDa homodimers, and 130 kDa complexes of MMP-9 covalently bound to NGAL [31 ]. Taking together our results of MMP-9 levels assessed by gelatin zymography and Western blot, we are able to describe the reduction of intracellular MMP-9 and the increase of extracellular MMP-9, monomer- and NGAL-complexed, after t-PA stimulation. These features are also occurring in neutrophils preactivated with fMLP, mimicking the neutrophil state in diseased situations.

These data suggest a strong relation between t-PA treatment and MMP-9 release, but to confirm that this degranulation effect was actually happening, we performed TIRF microscopy imaging ex vivo. TIRF imaging clearly revealed that t-PA is a degranulation promoter, as vesicles fusion was only observed after t-PA addition to media.

Mechanisms of t-PA-induced degranulation have never been studied. Others have suggested that MMP-9 release from tertiary granules uses β2-integrin-independent signaling pathways, and in fact, protein kinase C isoforms play a critical role in regulating tertiary granule release [32 ]. Whether this is a common pathway for MMP-9 neutrophil release needs to be studied further to increase t-PA safety.

Another interesting point of our study is the different MMP-9 release behavior in the studied healthy control cases. Although in most of the cases, the highest MMP-9 release peak occurred at 30 min after treatment, others showed an earlier release of MMP-9 at 10 min after t-PA addition. It would be interesting in a future study to focus on this issue to try to unravel any relationship between this interindividual variability in neutrophil degranulation and the patient’s clinical outcome after t-PA infusion.

Regarding MMP family expression, we have observed that not only MMP-9 is increased in cell medium after treatment, as confirmed previously by zymography, but also, MMP-8 and TIMP-2. MMP-8 is a well-known neutrophil collagenase that is stored, like MMP-9, as an inactive proenzyme in secondary granules of mature neutrophils [33 ]. Interestingly, MMP-8 follows the same release pattern than MMP-9. So, from our findings, future studies investigating the role of MMP-8 in brain infarct progression and BBB disruption might be carried out.

Regarding TIMPs, there is controversy about its presence in neutrophils [31 ]. Whereas we did not detect TIMP-1 in our samples, we were able to identify TIMP-2 as others did before [34 , 35 ], and interestingly, its level increased after t-PA treatment.

Although our study is the first to demonstrate that t-PA administration promotes MMP-9 release by neutrophils, indirect data from t-PA knockout mice also support the crosstalk between t-PA and neutrophil proteases. In fact, t-PA–/– mice displayed significantly less neutrophil influx into the interstitial area compared with wild-type mice in a model of renal ischemia reperfusion injury [36 ] and also a reduced neutrophil influx into the peritoneal cavity in a model of abdominal sepsis [37 ]. In both cases, the lack of t-PA-induced MMP-9 release necessary for transmigration might explain the reduced migratory response.

Although our results might have therapeutic value, the presence of neutrophils in vascular domains is highly cumulative and inherently time-dependent; therefore, its relevance in the ultra-acute phase of cerebral ischemia might be discussed (t-PA time window of 3 h). Given also that t-PA is eliminated fast from circulation, and the timing of neutrophil transmigration and the hemorrhage formation might not overlap well in most of the cases, the suggested major role of neutrophils in the early t-PA-related hemorrhage formation in ischemic stroke needs to be demonstrated, and the evidence shown in our study is far from making the main point in vivo. For that reason, targeting neutrophils in embolic animal stroke models treated with tPA to explore if that approach confers protection from thrombolysis-related bleedings seems mandatory to confirm in vivo our hypothesis.

In conclusion, our data suggest that neutrophils are good candidates to be the main source of MMP-9 following t-PA stroke treatment and a potential mediator of brain bleedings by excessive disruption of BBB when exaggerated, neutrophil tPA-induced degranulation occurs. We firmly believe that a combined therapy of t-PA with a MMP-9 or a neutrophil degranulation inhibitor might improve safety and efficacy of thrombolytic therapy in the acute phase of stroke.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
 
E. C. is the recipient of a grant from the Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria (FIS; 05/322) from the Spanish Ministry of Health. We are grateful to Marta Valeri for excellent technical assistance during TIRF microscopy imaging and Manolo Quintana for statistical advice. Neurovascular Research Laboratory is part of the Spanish Stroke Research Network (RENEVAS) funded by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, RETICS-RD 06/0026.


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FOOTNOTES
 
1 These authors contributed equally to this work. Back

Received September 6, 2007; revised February 18, 2008; accepted March 5, 2008.


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