Journal of Leukocyte Biology Myeloid cells, immune suppression, tumor immunology
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(Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 2002;72:279-284.)
© 2002 by Society for Leukocyte Biology

B cell development and proliferation of mature B cells in human fetal intestine

Sarah Golby, Maggie Hackett, Laurent Boursier, Deborah Dunn-Walters, Sivashankari Thiagamoorthy and Jo Spencer

Department of Histopathology, GKT Medical School, St. Thomas’ Campus, London, United Kingdom

Correspondence: Jo Spencer, Department of Histopathology, GKT Medical School, St. Thomas’ Campus, Lambeth Palace Rd., London SE1 7EH, UK E-mail: jo.spencer{at}kcl.ac.uk


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
B cells are present in human fetal intestine from approximately 14 weeks of gestation. Here we show that this population includes mature, dividing B cells. These are large cells with dendritic processes, resembling human thymic B cells. In addition, we observed IgM+, light chain-, and CD20- cells and local expression of V pre-B, demonstrating that the human fetal intestine is a site of B cell development. Ig VHDJH gene sequencing can confirm clonal identity of B cells. Identification of the same IgVH4–34 sequence in serial sections in two fetuses confirmed local accumulation of related cells in each case. IgVH4–34 was also amplified from an additional two samples, and the D and J repertoire compared with a unique database of unselected VH4–34 genes from postnatal gut. Distinguishing characteristics of Ig {lambda} genes in postnatal gut were also studied in the fetus. According to these parameters, fetal and postnatal B cells are unrelated.

Key Words: mucosa • pre-B cells • plasma cells • thymic B cells


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
In humans, B cell development begins early in fetal life. Pro-B cells, pre-B cells, and mature B cells are generated in the yolk sac at 3 weeks, the para-aortic splanchnopleure at 5 weeks, the liver from 8 weeks, and then the bone marrow from approximately the 12th week of gestation. Although pre-B cells have been identified in many fetal tissues [1 ], mature B cells have been observed in the fetal thymus from 15 weeks [2 ] and in the fetal intestine from approximately 14 weeks [3 ]. By 16 weeks, the intestinal B cells occur as aggregates with T cells and as isolated single cells in the lamina propria [3 ].

In this study, we have investigated the morphology and phenotype of fetal intestinal B cells and identified two distinct populations. We observed a population of dividing mature B cells with extensive cytoplasmic processes that make T cell contact and bear a striking resemblance to mature thymic B cells. The second, more serosally situated population was identified as pre-B cells, indicating that the fetal intestine is a novel site of B cell development.

Rearrangement of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes during B cell development, activity of endo- and exonucleases, and the random insertion of nucleotides by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase result in the generation of VHDJH junctional sequences, which can be considered clonotypic markers for individual B cells. Therefore, we used polymerase chain reaction (PCR), cloning, and sequencing of IgVH genes to confirm the presence of expanding populations of related cells in the fetal intestinal microenvironment, suggested by our immunohistochemical studies.

The question of whether fetal intestinal B cells, the majority of which are CD5+ [4 ], and postnatal B cells are related is of interest, as studies in mice have shown that B1 and B2 cells contribute to the intestinal plasma cell population. Approximately 50% of the intestinal plasma cells originate from CD5- B2 cells in the Peyer’s patches. The remaining 50% are derived from a separate lineage of B1 cells, a subset of which is CD5+, which are located in the peritoneal and pleural cavities and from where they seed the gut with antibody-producing cells while maintaining their own population by self renewal [5 , 6 ]. The origin of postnatal intestinal plasma cells in man is unclear, and it is not known whether they have a dual origin. The B cell population in the human peritoneum is small, but it does include a population of cells expressing the intestine-specific adhesion molecules {alpha}4ß47 and {alpha}Eß7 [7 ], which therefore have the potential to home to the intestinal mucosa. Although some B cells in human postnatal gut express CD5 when analyzed by flow cytometry [8 ], this may be a result of their activation status, as CD5 is an activation antigen in man [9 ] and therefore does not necessarily reflect a dual origin.

From previous studies, we have accumulated a unique database of IgVH4–34 genes derived from postnatal intestine that are out-of-frame between VH and JH. As these are unused alleles, the use of D and J by these genes is likely to reflect the factors that bias their use, which operated as the B cells developed. D and J use in VH4–34 genes was therefore compared in fetal intestinal B cells and unselected adult B cells to determine whether fetal and postnatal B cell populations are likely to be related. To address the same question, we investigated {lambda} light-chain genes in fetal intestine, as studies of {lambda} light-chain rearrangements in adult intestinal B cells showed that this population had a higher ratio of in-frame:out-of-frame rearrangements than the peripheral B cell population. This suggests that the rearrangement of light chain genes in the precursors of intestinal B cells may be a unique marker for their lineage, which may be common to fetal and adult populations.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Specimens
Specimens of human fetal intestine from therapeutic terminations were collected fresh and were immediately snap frozen and stored in liquid nitrogen. Ethics committee approval was gained for the collection of specimens and for the study of the stored frozen specimens demonstrated here. Specimens of 14–16 weeks (n=6) and 18–20 weeks (n=7) of gestation were analyzed using immunohistochemistry. Two specimens of 16 weeks were used to search for class-switch recombination and for expression of V pre-B. Four specimens of 18–20 weeks were used for Ig gene analysis.

Lymphocytes were isolated from the peripheral blood of two healthy adult volunteers, using Ficoll Hypaque (Amersham Pharmacia, Little Chalfont, UK) as controls. In addition, five specimens of normal intestine from patients aged 22.7, 36.7, 66, 77.5, and 80.7 years were also used as controls for analysis of DH and JH bias and {lambda} light chain conformation.

Immunohistochemistry
Frozen sections (8 µm) were fixed in fresh acetone for 30 min and were then incubated in murine anti-human monoclonal CD20 or IgD (Dako Ltd., Ely, Cambridgeshire, UK) or rabbit anti-human polyclonal IgA or IgG antibodies (Dako Ltd.) for 1 h. Binding was detected using horseradish peroxidase-conjugated rabbit anti-mouse or swine anti-rabbit Ig (Dako Ltd.) as appropriate, followed by diaminobenzidine substrate (Sigma-Aldrich, Poole, Dorset, UK). Sections were counterstained with Mayer’s haematoxylin, dehydrated, and mounted.

Sequential staining was used to analyze cellular proliferation and the relative distribution of B and T cells. The first antibody (to Ki67, IgM, CD20, or CD3, all from Dako Ltd.) was used to stain the sections as described above, but with no counterstain. The second antibody (to IgM, IgD, or CD20) was then applied to the sections, and binding was detected using biotinylated rabbit anti-mouse Ig followed by avidin-alkaline phosphatase conjugate (Dako Ltd.) and fast blue substrate (Sigma-Aldrich). Sections were then washed and mounted in aqueous mountant with no counterstain.

Immunofluorescence was used to study dual antigen expression. Sections were incubated with murine antibodies to IgM (Dako Ltd.) or CD68 (Dako Ltd.) and with a cocktail of rabbit antibodies to {kappa} and {lambda} light chains (Dako Ltd.). Binding was visualized using fluoresceinated goat anti-mouse Ig (Dako Ltd.) and biotinylated swine anti-rabbit Ig (Dako Ltd.) followed by streptavidin-conjugated rhodamine (Sigma-Aldrich). To detect dual expression of CD20 and IgM, sections were incubated in monoclonal CD20 (Dako Ltd.) and polyclonal rabbit anti-IgM. Binding of CD20 was detected using goat anti-mouse fluoresein isothiocyanate conjugate and anti-IgM using biotinylated swine anti-rabbit Ig, followed by rhodamine conjugated to extravidin.

Reverse transcription and PCR
DNA was isolated from sections of fetal tissue. For two samples, the sections were pooled, and for the remaining two samples, individual sections were processed for use in separate PCR reactions. Sections were incubated directly in proteinase K (Promega, Southampton, UK) to release DNA as previously described [10 ]. RNA was prepared from fragments of tissue approximately 2 mm3 using Trizol (Gibco-BRL, Paisley, UK), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Reverse transcription was carried out using Moloney murine leukemia virus reverse transcriptase (Promega) and oligo(dT) primers (Promega).

Methods for the amplification of IgVH4–34 to JH from DNA samples and IgVH4–34 to C{alpha} from cDNA samples, using fully nested [10 ] and semi-nested methods [11 ], respectively, and of V{lambda}1 and V{lambda}2 families [12 ] have been published previously. PCR products were cloned using the pGEM-T vector kit (Promega) and sequenced on an ABI 377 automatic sequencer using the ABI Prism dye terminator kit (PE Applied Biosystems, Warrington, UK), according to the manufacturer’s protocols. Sequences were analyzed using Genejockey II software and the V base sequencing directory (MRC Centre for Protein Engineering, Cambridge, UK).

Primers for the amplification of V pre-B were designed to span an intron, allowing discrimination between DNA and processed RNA sequences. The primers used were 5'-TGCAGTGGGTTCCATTTCTTCC-3' and 5'-CATGCTGTTTGTCTACTGCACAG-3'. Each primer (100 ng), 200 µM dNTPs (Promega), 1.5 mM MgCl2, and 0.5 U Taq DNA polymerase (Promega) were used in a 50 µl reaction volume. After a hot start of 2 min at 94°C, 30 cycles of 94°C for 30 s, 56°C for 30 s, and 72°C for 1 min were performed. Amplification of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was performed as a control, using the same PCR conditions. The primers used were 5'-GCCTCCTGCACCACCAACTG-3' and 5'-CGACGCCTGCTCACCACCTTC-3'. PCR products were visualized on a 3.5% agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide, and the relative intensity of the bands representing V pre-B DNA and RNA was assessed.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Human fetal intestine contains mature dividing B cells
Mature CD20+IgM+light-chain+ B cells were present in all specimens of fetal intestine studied. They were situated beneath the epithelium in primitive follicles and scattered through the lamina propria (Figs. 1 and 2 ). Morphologically, they were large cells with extensive cytoplasmic processes. Approximately 83% of CD20+ cells coexpressed IgD (range, 76–95% in 10 specimens). Expression of Ki67 was observed in approximately 11% of cells at 16 weeks and 8% of cells at 20 weeks and was included the IgD+ population (Fig. 1) . No IgG or IgA expression was observed, although there was considerable background staining for IgG, which was presumably of maternal origin. There was no germinal center formation.



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  		Figure 1. Immunohistochemical visualization of B cell morphology and proliferation and of B cell/T cell contact in human fetal intestine at 20 weeks. (a) CD20+ cells in a primitive follicle. (b) Illustration of morphology of CD20+ cells, which have cytoplasmic-processes, which are often extensive. Frequent contact is made with adjacent cells, and condensation of staining is apparent at points of contact (arrows). (c) Proliferating B cell stained with Ki67 proliferation antigen (brown) and CD20 (blue). (d) Primitive follicle stained with IgD. Note the presence of IgD+ cells with cytoplasmic processes (arrows). (e) IgD-expressing population (blue) includes Ki67+ proliferating cells (arrows). (f) Contact between T cells (brown) and CD20+ cells (blue) can be identified (arrows).

 


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  		Figure 2. Identification of pre-B cells in fetal intestine. (a) Expression of IgM (green) and light chain (red) in fetal intestine at 20 weeks. Cells expressing IgM but not light chain are indicated with short arrows. An example of a mature B cell with cytoplasmic processes that coexpresses light chain and IgM is indicated with a long arrow. Inset shows a cell double-stained for light chain and CD68. Cytophilic binding of light chain by CD68+ cells is the likely explanation for the red cells in this figure. (b) Expression of IgM (red) and CD20 (green). Red-only IgM+, CD20- cells are indicated with short arrows. A cell in the same field coexpressing CD20 and IgM is indicated with a long arrow. (c) Identification of V pre-B by PCR. The two arrows indicate the larger product from amplification of DNA and the shorter product representing the expressed gene. Lanes are 1, blood; 2 and 3, fetal intestine at 16 weeks; 4–7, postnatal intestine. V pre-B message is readily identified in fetal intestine at 20 weeks. The weak band identified in blood is consistent with previous observations [13 ]. MW, Molecular weight.

 
Contacts between the cytoplasmic processes of the B cells and the adjacent cells were common in the follicles and the lamina propria (Fig. 1) . It was also common to observe condensation of the CD20 staining at points of contact. B cell/T cell contact was also observed (Fig. 1) .

Human fetal intestine contains pre-B cells
In addition to the large B cells situated beneath the epithelium, a population of small, round IgM+light chain-CD20- cells was present beneath the muscularis (Fig. 2) . This is the phenotype of pre-B cells, suggesting that local B cell development is taking place. A population of light chain, positive cells that did not express IgM were probably macrophages, which had bound maternally derived IgG, as cells coexpressing CD68 and light chain could be identified (Fig. 2) . The presence of pre-B cells was confirmed by PCR for V pre-B expression, which clearly demonstrated that there is local surrogate light chain expression in fetal but not postnatal intestine (Fig. 2) . The low level of V pre-B seen in the blood is consistent with recently published data [13 ].

IgVH gene analysis
A total of 91 VH4–34 sequences derived from amplification of DNA from four fetal intestines were analyzed. For two of the intestines, sections were pooled for DNA extraction, and for the remaining two sections were processed individually for separate PCR reactions. Study of sections independently yielded 40 sequences. Of these, 13 were unique rearrangements. The remainder were groups with between two and four members, which shared the same CDR3 sequence but differed slightly in the sequence of the V region. Within three groups of sequences with two, three, and four members, the individual members were derived from different PCR reactions from different tissue sections, consistent with B cell proliferation. The sequences from the group with four members are shown in Figure 3 . The remaining 51 sequences were derived from pooled sections. Of these, three were unique sequences. The remainder could be grouped according to CDR3 sequence, and groups contained between 2 and 15 members. For analysis of D and J use, each group was considered to be a single sequence to avoid distortion of the data.



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  		Figure 3. Sequence of IgVH4–34 gene derived from gene-specific PCR of DNA from sections of fetal intestine at 20 weeks. Dashes indicate identity with the germline IgVH4–34 sequence, and base changes are indicated. Section 2 was divided in two halves (a and b), and Sections 3 and 5 refer to subsequent numbered serial sections. Identification of the same CDR3 sequence in IgVH4–34 genes from serial sections confirms that proliferation of cells with rearranged heavy chain is occurring. Base changes from germline could be a result of PCR polymerase error, although the presence of seven base changes in the sequence from Section 3 suggests that somatic hypermutation may occur.

 
Some related sequences had base changes from the germline IgVH4–34 gene. Overall, 81 base changes were observed in 23,326 nucleotides sequenced. This frequency of substitution (1 in 288) is less than that calculated for PCR error, and so it may be a result of PCR error rather than somatic hypermutation. However, a low level of somatic hypermutation cannot be excluded.

In previous studies of D and J segment use by VH4–34 genes in postnatal intestine, we observed 18 IgVH4–34 genes that were out-of-frame between VH and JH. These are considered to be unused alleles that have no selection-introduced biases in D and J use. Therefore, these were used for comparison with the sequences from fetal intestine. Figure 4 illustrates the notable differences between the D and JH repertoire in the fetal intestine and in the unselected repertoire of cells that give rise to plasma cells postnatally. The fetal repertoire is significantly biased toward rearrangement of DHQ52 (P=0.037) and JH4 (P=0.009) when compared with the unselected adult repertoire.



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  		Figure 4. Comparison of biases in DH and JH use in IgVH4–34 genes in fetal intestine and out-of-frame alleles from postnatal intestine. Different biases in (a) JH and (b) DH are apparent in fetal B cells (solid bars) and the unselected postnatal repertoire (open bars). These populations are therefore not directly related.

 
One class-switched IgVH4–34C{alpha}1 rearrangement was obtained from a specimen at 16 weeks of gestation (Fig. 5 ). It was in-frame, but had two base changes compared with the germline VH4–34 segment, one of which generated a stop codon.



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  		Figure 5. A class-switched IgVH4–34DJH6C{alpha}1 rearrangement isolated from human fetal gut. The top line represents the germline nucleotide sequence of IgVH4–34 gene segment. The second line represents the sequence of an IgVH4–34DJH6C{alpha}1 rearrangement obtained from a 16-week-old human fetal gut. The UGA translational stop codon located in the FR2 domain is boxed. Dashes indicate identity with the germline VH4–34 gene segment sequence. Nucleotides that are different from the germline IgVH4–34 gene segment are shown. Sequences corresponding to CDR regions are underlined. The JH6 gene segment is shown in italics. *RNA splice site (5' end of C{alpha}1 gene segment). The 5' IgVH4–34 FR1 and 3' C{alpha} PCR primer sequences are shown in bold italics.

 
IgV{lambda} gene analysis
The ratio of in-frame:out-of-frame {lambda} light chain genes was compared in fetal intestinal B cells and in CD20- B cells from postnatal intestine. Unlike postnatal intestine, out-of-frame {lambda} genes of both families were observed in human fetus. In the fetal gut, the ratios were 14:4 in the IgV{lambda}1J{lambda} rearrangements and 7:3 in the IgV{lambda}2J{lambda} rearrangements. This is similar to postnatal peripheral lymphoid tissue [14 ], but different from postnatal, intestinal CD20- B cells (ref. [12 ], and L.B. and J.S., unpublished results; Table 1 ).


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  		Table 1. In-Frame:Out-of-Frame Ratios Observed in IgV{lambda}1J{lambda} and IgV{lambda}2J{lambda} Rearrangements Amplified from Human Fetal Gut B Cells, Postnatal CD20- Areas of Large Bowel Lamina Propria, and Human CD19+ IgM+ Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes (PBLs)

 

   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
 
In this study of human fetal intestine, we have identified two novel populations of B cells with distinct morphology and phenotypes, which are not present in the postnatal, intestinal lamina propria. The first is a population of large, dividing, mature B cells with an unusual and characteristic morphology and phenotype (CD20+IgM+IgD+light chain+), which is uniquely shared by a subset of thymic B cells [16 , 17 ]. These are large B cells with extensive cytoplasmic processes, which divide despite the absence of exogenously derived antigen. The majority of the dividing population is IgD+. There is a frequent association between the cytoplasmic processes of the B cells and adjacent T cells and a thickening of the staining at the points of contact [16 ].

In several mouse models, thymic B cells have been shown to play an essential role in negative selection, inducing the elimination of self-reactive CD4+ thymocytes [18 19 20 ]. As extrathymic T cell development occurs in human fetal intestine from 12 weeks of gestation [15 , 21 ], it is possible that as in the thymus, the B cells may play a role in the development and selection of the T cells. However, the fetal intestinal B cell D and J repertoire observed differs from that of postnatal thymic B cells [16 , 17 , 22 ], indicating that they do not share a common origin.

A second population of B cells, which differed from the large B cells in their phenotype, morphology, and location, was observed in fetal intestine and was found to be pre-B cells. This is the first time that the intestine has been identified as a site of B cell development, and the relationship between these pre-B cells and the large, mature cells is unclear. However, as we have shown that the human fetal intestinal B cells are unlikely to be precursors of the adult intestinal plasma cells, intestinal B cell maturation may be a feature of fetal development only. It is interesting that in mice that completely lack Notch-1, a receptor involved in T cell fate specification of T/B precursors [23 ], the precursor cells develop into B cells in the thymus [24 ] but become developmentally arrested in the gut [25 ]. This indicates that the adult murine intestinal microenvironment is not permissive for B cell development.

As the large, mature B cells are considerably more abundant than the small pre-B cells, our analysis of the Ig gene repertoire of fetal intestinal B cells relates to that population. We have shown that their JH and DH repertoire resembles that previously seen in other B cell subsets in the fetus, including the developing B cells in fetal spleen and liver [26 ] and the "mature" CD5+ B cells in cord blood [27 ]. It is different from the unselected repertoire of plasma cells in postnatal intestine. In addition, a greater proportion of {lambda} light chain gene rearrangements were found to be out-of-frame in the fetal intestinal B cells rather than in the postnatal, intestinal CD20- plasma cells. Postnatal and fetal B cells are therefore different populations, and there is no evidence for any relationship between them.

As B cell proliferation was seen in fetal intestine, we investigated the possibility that these cells may undergo class-switch recombination. We obtained a class-switched IgVH4–34C{alpha}1 rearrangement from a 16-week-old fetal intestine. It contained two base changes from the germline in the VH4–34 segment, one of which generated a stop codon that would render the rearrangement unproductive, although the possibility that the base substitution results from a PCR error cannot be excluded. Although class-switch events are rare in the fetus, and there is no evidence for production of IgA, this observation demonstrates that albeit rarely, class-switch recombination can occur in this dividing B cell population in the fetus in the absence of germinal centers or exogenously derived antigen.


   ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
 
S. G. and M. H. were supported by the Charitable Fund for Guy’s and St. Thomas’ Hospitals.

Received December 5, 2001; revised March 6, 2002; accepted March 26, 2002.


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 

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