(Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 2000;68:593-602.)
© 2000
by Society for Leukocyte Biology
Cellular signaling in macrophage migration and chemotaxis
Gareth E. Jones
The Randall Centre for Molecular Mechanisms of Cell Function, Kings College London, United Kingdom
Correspondence: Gareth E. Jones, The Randall Centre for Molecular Mechanisms of Cell Function, Kings College London, New Hunts House, Guys Campus, London SE1 1UL, UK. E-mail:
gareth.jones{at}kcl.ac.uk

ABSTRACT
Whereas most cells in adult tissues are fixed in place by cell
junctions,
leukocytes are motile and able to migrate actively through
the
walls of blood vessels into surrounding tissues. The actin
cytoskeleton
of these cells plays a central role in locomotion,
phagocytosis,
and the regulation of cell shape that are crucial
elements of
neutrophil and monocyte/macrophage function. This review
will
concentrate on how macrophages in particular control the actin
cytoskeleton
to generate cell movement and the shape changes required
for
chemotaxis. It has recently become evident that a complex of
seven
proteins known as the Arp2/3 complex regulates the assembly
of new
actin filament networks at the leading front of moving
cells. Proteins
of the Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome Protein (WASP)
family bind directly to
the Arp2/3 complex and stimulate its
ability to promote the nucleation
of new actin filaments. Upstream
of the WASP family proteins, receptor
tyrosine kinases, G-protein-coupled
receptors, phosphoinositide-3-OH
kinase (PI 3-kinase), and the
Rho family of GTPases receive and
transduce the signals that
lead to actin nucleation through WASP-Arp2/3
action. Although
many gaps remain in our understanding, we are now in a
position
to consider completing signaling pathways that are initiated
from
outside the cell to the actin rearrangements that drive cell
motility
and chemotaxis.
Key Words: phosphoinositide 3-kinases GTPases signal transduction actin cytoskeleton cell polarity cell locomotion review

INTRODUCTION
The chemoattraction of macrophages and neutrophils into tissues
is
an essential step in the host response to infection. It is
commonly
held that this so-called innate or nonspecific immune
response protects
us from at least 98% of the pathogens we encounter,
so there is little
doubt that the migratory capacity of these
leukocytes is of fundamental
importance to our survival. Although
the dynamics of cell migration are
most frequently analyzed
in tissue-cultured fibroblasts
[
1
,
2
], there are fundamental
similarities
in the locomotory steps within all vertebrate cells
that suggest that
they share a common motile machinery. This
concept is best demonstrated
by the observation that isolated
cultured macrophages display short
surface protrusions, termed
filopodia or microspikes, which are
extensions of about 0.10.2
µm in diameter and up to 20 µm in
length, supported
by a core of bundled actin filaments
(microfilaments). In both
macrophages and fibroblasts filopodia support
thin veils or
sheets of membrane-enclosed cytoplasm, termed
lamellipodia,
containing a meshwork of myosin II-associated
microfilaments.
In macrophages, as in other cell types, the actin
meshwork within
the lamellipodia, in association with numerous
structural and
regulatory proteins, constitutes the molecular motor for
cell
locomotion. Interested readers are referred to the excellent
core
reviews cited above plus more recent material [
3
].
The locomotory apparatus of most cells works against cell-to-substratum
adhesions usually referred to as focal contacts or focal adhesions.
These structures link adhesive extracellular matrix proteins to myosin
II-containing bundles of cytoplasmic microfilaments (stress fibers) via
members of the integrin family of proteins [4
]. While
integrin-mediated contacts to the substratum also exist in macrophages,
these take two forms: focal complexes that are structurally related to
focal contacts but lack stress fibers [5
], and
podosomes, distinct circular structures that seem to be largely
restricted to cells of the myeloid lineage [6
,
7
].
The forward movement of macrophages can be divided into steps:
protrusion of filopodia and lamellipodia at the leading front, adhesion
of the protruding edge to the substratum via focal complexes,
contraction of the cytoplasmic actomyosin, and finally release from
contact sites at the tail of the cell [8
,
9
]. A number of molecular events need to be integrated in
order to allow a cell to move across a substratum, and it appears that
this coordination is largely mediated by the actin microfilaments
within the cytoplasm. In addition, the actin cytoskeleton is a key
mediator of cell polarization and the directed migration of macrophages
toward chemoattractant (chemotaxis). This review will examine the
evidence that supports these conclusions, dealing with aspects of
chemoattractant signals, regulatory intracellular signaling pathways,
and cytoskeletal reorganization as appropriate.

CHEMOATTRACTANT SIGNALS AND RECEPTORS
Leukocytes sense a wide variety of chemoattractants that can
in
principle guide their migratory path within tissues [
10
,
11
].
Cells are responsive to bacterial components,
leukotrienes,
complement factors, and chemokines, an ever-expanding
family
of attractants controlling leukocyte migration
[
12
]. All these
attractants in both neutrophils and
monocytes/macrophages interact
with specific serpentine (heptahelical)
receptors [
13
], embedded
in the plasma membrane, that
transduce ligand-induced signals
by coupling to heterotrimeric G
proteins (
Fig. 1
). The G protein
complex dissociates into

and ß

subunits,
which in
turn bind and activate target enzymes such as phospholipase
C,
phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase), or adenyl cyclase.
These
enzymes generate intracellular messengers that initiate
a cascade of
events that culminate in the cytoskeletal and chemoattraction
response
to ligand-induced receptor activation. Similar systems
are also found
in primitive organisms such as the free-living
amoeba
Dictyostelium discoideum [
14
], demonstrating
the near-universality
of this signal transduction system. Five recent
articles [
15
16
17
18
19
]
together provide convincing evidence
of a role for PI 3-kinase
in serpentine receptor signaling and
chemotaxis. At least four
Class I PI 3-kinase isoforms exist in
mammalian cells [
20
],
but only one form, a single Class
I
B variant containing the
p110

catalytic subunit
complexed with a 101-kDa regulatory protein,
is thought to interact
with G-proteins in leukocytes. Because
leukocyte chemokine responses
are sensitive to pertussis toxin,
it has been assumed that chemokine
receptors are coupled to
a G
i, and a large number of
observations support this view [
13
].
However, this
assumption requires modification because there
are many data in the
literature implicating not only other families
of G-protein

subunits in signaling [
21
], but also Gß
subunits
[
22
]. Whereas some have reported that Class
I
B PI
3-kinase is responsive to activation by G

subunits
[
23
], others
have shown that p110

becomes activated
through an interaction
with the ß

subunits [
24
].
Whatever the case, all
appear to converge on a common pathway where the
outcome will
lead to the phosphorylation of
phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate
(PIP
2) by activated
PI 3-kinase. As a result, phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-triphosphate
(PIP
3)
is generated
(Fig. 1)
. The work cited earlier
[
15
] on mice
lacking the p110

catalytic subunit of PI
3-kinase convincingly
show that leukocytes lacking this
G-protein-specific isoform
are unable to produce PIP
3 and
that this has a striking effect
on the ability of macrophages and
neutrophils to migrate. Chemotaxis
mediated via serpentine receptors is
severely reduced and there
was a general failure to clear bacteria from
the peritoneal
cavity [
17
].
Although it is commonly assumed that the chemotactic behavior
induced
in leukocytes will act through serpentine receptors
[
25
],
monocytes, and macrophages at least are also
capable of responding
to chemoattractants that signal through surface
receptor tyrosine
kinases [
26
]. This type of receptor
(
Fig. 2
) is linked to
the signal transduction pathways that regulate
mitogenesis and
cell differentiation, and indeed monocytes and
macrophages posses
a canonical receptor tyrosine kinase that regulates
just these
parameters: colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R)
[
27
,
28
]. However, it was shown some time
ago [
29
,
30
] that the
actin cytoskeleton
was also a target for CSF-1. Re-addition
of CSF-1 to quiescent BAC1.2F5
macrophages stimulates rapid
cytoskeletal reorganization and cell
motility within a few minutes,
followed by chemotactic migration up a
gradient of diffusing
cytokine [
31
]. Given the fact that
major sources of endogenous
CSF-1 include activated endothelia and
tissue fibroblasts as
well as macrophage-recruiting mammary gland
carcinomas [
32
],
the chemotactic properties of this
cytokine for macrophages
and monocytes is likely to be physiologically
significant. Unlike
serpentine receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases
such as CSF-1R
directly interact with a host of substrates after
autophosphorylation
induced by ligand binding, although in
CSF-1-treated mouse macrophages,
PI 3-kinase is the major protein
associated with the activated
receptor [
33
]. A full
review of the biology of CSF-1 signal
transduction is available
[
27
], but it is worth emphasizing
that three Class
I
A isoforms of PI 3-kinase are involved. The
p110 subunits
in these PI 3-kinases exist in complex with a
p85 protein that has two
Src-homology-2 (SH2) domains
(Fig. 2) . The latter bind to
phosphorylated tyrosine residues found
on activated CSF-1R, thus
allowing translocation to the plasma
membrane where their lipid (such
as PIP
2) and other substrates
are found
[
34
]. All mammalian cells so far examined express
at
least one Class I
A PI 3-kinase isoform: p110

and p110ß
are
widely distributed in tissues, but p110

is normally restricted
to
leukocytes. It was shown earlier that CSF-1R induces direct
interaction
of PI 3-kinase (via its p85 subunit) with the SH2/SH3
adaptor
protein Grb2 [
35
]. More recently, we found that
although all
three Class I
A p110 isoforms were equally
recruited to activated
CSF-1R, subsequent signaling to the actin
cytoskeleton of macrophages
was differentially regulated. Antibody
against p110

blocked
CSF-1-induced DNA synthesis but did not affect
CSF-1-induced
actin rearrangements or cell migration. However,
antibodies
against p110ß and p110

had the converse effect, with
the
latter isoform completely abrogating cell migration
[
36
]. As
was described for serpentine receptors, the net
result of PI
3-kinase activation through receptor tyrosine kinases is
the
generation of PIP
3 (Fig. 2)
.
PIP
3 is a target for many pleckstrin-homology (PH)
domain-containing
proteins [
37
], which activate kinases
and small GTPases. PIP
2-
and PIP
3-binding PH
domains are found in a diverse array of
proteins, including
nucleotide-exchange factors (e.g., Vav,
GRP1, ARNO, Tiam-1, Sos1),
GTPase-activating factors (e.g.,
GAP1
m), phospholipases
(e.g., PLC

2), protein kinases (e.g.,
PKB, Btk, PDK1), and adaptor
proteins [
38
]. As will be described
later, these are
important components in the regulation of the
actin cytoskeleton
leading to the migration response of cells.

RHO FAMILY PROTEINS
Small GTPases of the Rho family are pivotal regulators of
signaling
networks that are activated by chemokine and cytokine
receptors
as well as other receptor types [
39
]. An
introduction to these
proteins is provided below, but for those who
wish to see more
detail, many excellent reviews exist and the reader is
referred
to recent examples [
40
].
The Rho family is part of the Ras superfamily of small (around 21 kDa)
GTP-binding proteins. To date, 15 mammalian members of the Rho family
have been identified: Rho (A, B, C, D, E, G), Rac (1, 2, 3), Cdc42 (two
alternatively spliced variants of the same gene with different
carboxy-terminal sequences), Rnd1/Rnd6, Rnd2/Rho7, TC10, and TTF. Of
the mammalian proteins, the best characterized for their ability to
regulate actin organization are RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42. Rho was the
first member of this family to be cloned in 1985, followed a few years
later by Rac and Cdc42. The most frequently used tool for studying Rho
function is C3 transferase, an exoenzyme from Clostridium
botulinum, which ADP-ribosylates and inactivates Rho
[41
]. Treatment of many cell types with C3 transferase
induces loss of stress fibers, and this was the first indication that
Rho influences the actin cytoskeleton. Subsequently, Rac was also shown
to regulate actin organization, and at the same time was independently
purified as an essential cofactor for the NADPH oxidase in phagocytic
cells [42
].

RHO FAMILY PROTEINS AND THE ACTIN CYTOSKELETON
The roles of Rho, Rac, and Cdc42 in regulating actin organization
were
first characterized in detail in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts. These
cells
have proven to be a good model system for analyzing rapid changes
in
the actin cytoskeleton, because when confluent and serum-starved
they
lose practically all of the two most prominent actin
filament-containing
structures found in fibroblasts: stress fibers and
lamellipodia.
Stress fibers are bundles of actin filaments associated
with
myosin II filaments and other proteins, forming contractile
fibers.
They terminate at the plasma membrane in focal adhesions, where
transmembrane
integrins are clustered and associate both with
extracellular
matrix proteins outside the cell and with a large number
of
proteins inside the cell [
43
]. Lamellipodia are
broad, highly
dynamic membrane protrusions that extend and retract
through
a combination of actin polymerization at the plasma membrane,
depolymerization
within the cytoplasm, and myosin-mediated rearward
movement
of the actin fibers [
2
].
Constitutively active mutants of Rho and Rac induce the formation of
stress fibers and lamellipodia, respectively, when microinjected into
quiescent Swiss 3T3 cells. Conversely, microinjection of C3 transferase
to inhibit Rho or of a dominant-negative Rac mutant to inhibit Rac
inhibits growth factor-induced formation of these structures
[41
]. Activated Cdc42 protein induces the extension of
filopodia [44
], finger-like plasma membrane protrusions
containing actin filament bundles, which actively protrude and retract.
Under appropriate conditions, Cdc42, Rac, and Rho can activate each
other sequentially in a cascade: Cdc42 can induce Rac-mediated
lamellipodium formation, and Rac can induce Rho-mediated stress fiber
formation [45
].
Rho, Rac, and Cdc42 also regulate the assembly of adhesion sites
to the extracellular matrix in fibroblasts. Rho mediates the formation
of focal adhesions, whereas Rac and Cdc42 induce the formation of
smaller adhesion sites (focal complexes) to the extracellular matrix,
located in lamellipodia and at the bases of filopodia
[41
]. To determine how Rho, Rac, and Cdc42 act in cell
types other than fibroblasts, we used a mouse macrophage cell line,
BAC1.2F5, that resembles primary macrophages in being dependent upon
CSF-1 for survival and proliferation as well as exhibiting many of the
markers of normal activated macrophages [29
].
Constitutively active and dominant-negative mutants of Rho, Rac, and
Cdc42 were injected into BAC1 macrophages and assessed for their
effects on the actin cytoskeleton and on adhesion sites
[5
]. As in fibroblasts, Rac induces the formation of
lamellipodia and membrane ruffles and is required for the formation of
these structures in response to CSF-1. Cdc42 induces rapid formation of
filopodia and again is required for CSF-1-induced filopodium extension.
These cells do not possess stress fibers, but have very fine actin
cables within the cytoplasm, running parallel to the plasma membrane
and around the nucleus. These cables are not detectable in
cytokine-starved cells, but re-appear upon stimulation with CSF-1 after
1530 min. Rho is required for this response and is activated
downstream of Rac. The ability of Rac to activate Rho is thus conserved
between fibroblasts and macrophages. Activated Rho also stimulates the
formation of these cables in cytokine-starved cells, and induces cell
contraction (Fig. 3
). It is interesting that BAC1 macrophages have focal complexes
that are regulated by Cdc42 acting upstream of Rac [5
].
Again, the link between Cdc42 and Rac is present in these cells, as in
fibroblasts. These focal complexes contain proteins normally associated
with fibroblast focal adhesions, including ß1-integrin,
vinculin, a focal adhesion kinase, and paxillin. In BAC1 cells, Rho
does not regulate the formation of focal complexes, suggesting that it
does not directly modulate cell adhesion, at least via
integrin-containing complexes. Unfortunately, these macrophages only
rarely develop podosomes in culture so it has not been possible to
examine the regulation of these structures by Rho proteins through the
use of this model.

PROTEINS CONTROLLING RHO GTPASE ACTIVITY
All Rho family proteins bind GTP, and the majority have been
shown
to act as GTPases and cycle between an active, GTP-bound
form and an
inactive, GDP-bound form. Three different types
of protein have been
found to regulate the cycling of Rho family
proteins.
Nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) stimulate the release of nucleotide
allowing GTP, which is at a higher concentration than GDP in cells, to
bind and thereby activate the protein. Well over 30 potential exchange
factors for Rho family proteins have been identified
[46
]; all contain a homologous Dbl domain that is
sufficient to stimulate exchange, adjacent to a PH domain. Several
mechanisms have been suggested for how GEF activity might be regulated
in cells, one favored hypothesis being that PIP3 binds to
their PH domains (Fig. 4
). In the case of Vav, a GEF expressed only in hematopoietic cells,
there is good evidence for this hypothesis [47
] because
Vav is activated by tyrosine phosphorylation in response to
extracellular signals, and binding of PIP3 enhances this
phosphorylation [48
].
The intrinsic GTPase activity of the Rho proteins is enhanced
by
GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs). GAPs for Rho family proteins
all
share a related 140-amino-acid domain, the RhoGAP domain,
which is
sufficient to confer GAP activity. So far, little is
known about how
GAPs are regulated in cells, although changes
in subcellular
localization will probably be important. Finally,
Rho, Rac, and Cdc42
have all been shown to complex with proteins
known as GDIs (guanine
nucleotide dissociation inhibitors),
which prevent their interaction
with other regulatory proteins
and keep them sequestered in the
cytoplasm [
49
,
50
]. Once
an appropriate
stimulus induces dissociation of the complex,
binding of the Rho
protein to the membrane is possible, consistent
with GDIs acting as
negative regulators of Rho signaling. Of
the three mammalian GDIs
specific for the Rho family, only RhoGDI
has a high affinity for RhoA,
Rac1, and Cdc42 [
51
]. In addition
to keeping Rho family
proteins in an inactive complex in the
cytoplasm, RhoGDI interacts with
ERM (ezrin/radixin/moesin)
proteins, which in turn interact with
transmembrane proteins
such as CD44 and ICAM-1, and also with actin
[
52
]. Because
ERM proteins can adopt either a closed or
open conformation,
stimuli that induce unfolding of ERM proteins could
lead to
release of Rho proteins from RhoGDI and their subsequent
availability
for activation via GEFs. ERM proteins can also bind to the
Rho
GEF, Dbl [
53
], suggesting that they may coordinate
the release
of Rho proteins from GDIs and enhance exchange of GDP for
GTP.

ACTIVATION OF CDC42, RAC, AND RHO
It is generally assumed that the major form of activation of
Rho
GTPases is via activation of GEFs, although this assumption
must be
considered in light of the complex pattern of controls
outlined above.
The GTPases are relatively small molecules acting
as switches, whereas
GEFs are usually large in size and contain
many domains that allow them
to interact with different regulatory
cellular components and thus
integrate various signals. Rac
is activated by a wide variety of
tyrosine kinase receptors
including the CSF-1R [
5
] and
serpentine receptors [
54
]. Data
from a number of studies
suggest that PI 3-kinase is a crucial
component in this pathway but the
details are not yet clear.
Several studies have demonstrated that
lamellipodia formation
and membrane ruffling induced by activated Rac
is not inhibited
by pharmacological inhibitors of PI 3-kinase, and the
ruffling
induced by PI 3-kinase is blocked by dominant-negative
versions
of Rac [
55
]. These data all suggest that PI
3-kinase is acting
upstream of Rac. For signaling via serpentine
receptor, the
Gß

heterodimer is likely to be the conduit to the
p110
isoform of PI 3-kinase that leads to Rac activation via
PIP
3 production [
56
]. Ma and colleagues
reported that a dominant-negative
variant of Cdc42 failed to block PI
3-kinase-dependent effects,
thus implying that the pathway between PI
3-kinase and the actin
cytoskeleton is dependent on Rac but not on
Cdc42. On the other
hand, Benard and co-workers [
54
]
demonstrated a clear activation
of Cdc42 in addition to Rac. Our own
work on CSF-1R in macrophages
supports a similar pathway for signaling
via receptor tyrosine
kinases [
36
], although evidence
for a specific Rac and/or Cdc42-mediated
pathway has not yet been
presented.
PIP3 binds to the PH domain of at least three GEFs, Tiam1,
Sos, and the leukocyte-specific Vav [57
]. In the latter
study on Vav, PIP3 binding was found to enhance GDP-to-GTP
exchange on Rac and Cdc42 as well as Rho, lending support to earlier
findings that Vav activates Rho, Rac, and Cdc42, and not just Rac
[58
]. An attractive hypothesis is one that predicts that
PIP3 binding to the PH domain of Vav elicits a
conformational change, which then activates this GEF (Fig. 4)
. It
should not be forgotten that many other possibilities exist. It has
been shown that N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine
(fMLP) receptor stimulation will also cause activation of the
src-related kinase, Lyn [59
], directly
indicating the involvement of tyrosine kinase activity leading to Rac
and Cdc42 activation through serpentine receptor activation. Activation
of Rho itself can also be stimulated through G-proteins, with both
G
12 and G
13 being implicated
[60
]. However, the exact mechanism by which G-protein
subunits lead to activation of Rho is yet to be fully elucidated,
although a candidate GEF in this pathway has been identified as
p115RhoGEF [61
]. Although G
subunits can activate Rho
through this GEF, additional signaling events must also be involved,
the complexities of which are discussed in a recent review
[62
].

REGULATION OF THE CYTOSKELETON
Once activated, Rho family proteins can interact with downstream
target
(effector) proteins, stimulating signaling pathways that lead
to
the observed cellular responses. For example, many observations
on Rho
function are consistent with its ability to regulate
cell contractility
[
63
]. This is seen clearly in macrophages,
where
microinjection of activated Rho protein rapidly leads
to cell
contraction [
5
]. As well as stimulating actomyosin-based
contractility,
Rho can also stimulate actin polymerization in a more
cell type-restricted
manner [
64
]. Many targets for Rho
family proteins have recently
been identified, including protein
kinases, phosphoinositide
kinases, and adaptor proteins, which have no
enzymatic function
but have the ability to interact with one or more
other proteins
[
65
]. A number of targets have the
potential to link Rho, Rac,
or Cdc42 directly with the actin
cytoskeleton. For example,
IQGAP1, which is abundant in lamellipodia,
binds to actin filaments
and also to Rac and Cdc42 [
66
].
Cdc42 directly stimulates actin
polymerization in leukocyte extracts in
a manner that seems
independent of either PIP
2 or
PIP
3 [
67
]. A Cdc42-interacting
protein,
CIP4, shows sequence homology to a small region of
ERM proteins and may
act as a transducer to the actin cytoskeleton
[
68
]. In
addition, Rho-kinase/ROK can induce the phosphorylation
of myosin II
light chain kinase [
69
], whereas the Rac/Cdc42-specific
PAK
family of kinases can phosphorylate myosin I heavy chain, although
it
is debatable whether this occurs in mammalian cells
[
70
].
Indirect mechanisms linking Rho proteins to the actin cytoskeleton are
more common. One member of the PAK family, the Cdc42-specific PAK4,
induces the formation of filopodia [71
]. PAKs also
promotes turnover of focal complexes under the influence of Cdc42 or
Rac [72
], suggesting a role in the breakdown of
attachments to the substratum that may be critical for macrophage
locomotion. Finally, the Rho target p140mDia can bind to profilin
[73
], an actin-binding protein with the potential to
enhance actin polymerization at the leading edge of migrating cells.
The precise mechanisms whereby these targets, and undoubtedly others,
act to regulate actin reorganization, have yet to be fully elucidated
[69
].

WAS AND WASP
For leukocytes in general and macrophages in particular, interest
has
recently focused on Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome protein (WASP).
The
Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome (WAS) is a rare inherited X-linked
recessive
disease characterized by immune disregulation and
microthrombocytophenia
[
74
,
75
]. The
clinical phenotype of the immune disorder includes
susceptibility to
pyrogenic, viral, and opportunistic infections
[
76
].
Several lines of evidence suggest a role for this hematopoietic
cell-restricted
protein as a mediator of Cdc42, and to a much lesser
extent
Rac, effects on the cytoskeleton. Three groups have demonstrated
that
WASP interacts directly with Cdc42 in a GTP-dependent manner
[
77
78
79
].
Overexpression of WASP induced the formation
of actin filament
clusters in several cell types and this clustering
could be
inhibited with dominant-negative Cdc42 [
79
].
More recently,
inducible targeting of WASP to the plasma membrane has
been
shown to induce filopodia formation in the presence of activated
Cdc42
[
80
]. This same group also demonstrated that WASP
acts downstream
of Cdc42 in membrane protrusion formation.
In recent months, a fuller picture of WASP and related family proteins
(N-WASP and SCAR proteins) has emerged [81
]. It was
found that members of the WASP family all share a conserved
amino-terminal portion called the EVH1 domain, which shares some
similarities with PH domains. As well as binding phosphoinositides, it
seems that EVH1 domains perform a unique function, interacting with
proline-rich target sequences [82
]. For WASP, the most
likely candidate is the WASP-interacting protein WIP
[83
]. Just carboxy-terminal to the EVH1 domain of WASP
is the CRIB motif, which confers interaction with Cdc42, and more
centrally there are proline-rich sequences that can interact with
SH3-containing proteins such as the adaptor proteins Nck and Grb2,
protein tyrosine kinases of the c-Src family such as Fyn, and the
actin-binding protein profilin [84
]. The carboxy
terminus of WASP family proteins is made up of two regions. One is an
actin-binding motif [85
] known as the WH2 motif. The
second is the A motif, which includes a cluster of acidic residues that
mediate binding to the Arp2/3 complex [85
]. Interest in
the Arp2/3 complex has been intense because it proved essential for the
reconstitution of actin-based motility and polymerization on the
surface of the intracellular parasite Listeria monocytogenes
[86
]. The complex, which was first discovered in 1994,
localizes to the leading edge of motile cells [87
]
including macrophages [G. Jones, unpublished data], where it is also
found in WASP-enriched podosomes. The Arp2/3 complex caps the
slow-growing (pointed) ends of actin filaments [88
], and
also binds to the sides of filaments, allowing cross-linking and
branching of the actin cytoskeleton [89
].

CELL MIGRATION
The ability of Rho, Rac, and Cdc42 to regulate cell adhesion
and
actin organization suggests that they could be involved
in cell
migration and chemotactic responses. We have tested
this hypothesis on
BAC1 macrophages. Migration of microinjected
cells can be directly
measured in a Dunn chemotaxis chamber
by time-lapse microscopy followed
by computer-assisted analysis
[
31
]. This allows the
immediate effects of microinjecting proteins
to be determined, avoiding
the less direct approach of establishing
cell lines that show altered
migratory responses as a result
of long-term changes in gene expression
induced by the exogenously
expressed GTPases.
We have observed that activated forms of Rho, Rac, and Cdc42 inhibit
the migration of macrophages in response to CSF-1 [8
].
This most likely reflects the fact that expression of these proteins
dramatically reorganizes the cytoskeleton such that a cell can no
longer be polarized sufficiently to allow migration [5
].
Inhibition of Rho and Rac, by microinjection of C3 transferase and of
the dominant-negative N17Rac1 protein, respectively, also prevents the
migration of cells. The effect of N17Rac1 is expected, because
lamellipodia are universally observed at the leading edge of migrating
cells, and are required for forward protrusion of the membrane. The
effect of inhibiting Rho suggests that the contractile actin cables
regulated by Rho play an important role in mediating cell migration,
probably pulling the body of the cell forward. In the absence of Rho,
cells gradually extend dendritic processes, terminating in lamellipodia
[5
]. This suggests that the cell is still able to extend
its leading edge, but the cell body does not follow and net
translocation is not achieved.
Unlike inhibiting Rho and Rac, which completely abrogates cell
migration, inhibiting Cdc42, and thus the formation of filopodia, does
not prevent cells moving in response to CSF-1, but actually enhances
their migration rate compared to control injected cells
[8
]. However, the dominant-negative N17Cdc42 protein
does prevent cells recognizing a chemotactic gradient of CSF-1, and the
cells migrate in random directions. This effect of N17Cdc42 resembles
the response of BAC1 cells to tumor necrosis factor
(TNF-
),
which abolishes their ability to detect a gradient of CSF-1 without
altering their speed of locomotion [31
]. Consistent with
a role for Cdc42 in responding to the concentration gradient, TNF-
also inhibits CSF-1-induced filopodium formation without affecting
lamellipodium formation or membrane ruffling [90
].

A ROLE FOR INTEGRINS
One explanation for why macrophages move faster when Cdc42 is
inhibited
is that the adhesions to the substratum are weaker, because
the
integrin-containing focal complexes are dispersed
[
5
]. It has
been shown that cell migration is maximal at
a critical strength
of interaction between the cell and the
extracellular matrix,
dependent on ligand concentration, integrin
expression, and
integrin-ligand affinity [
91
]. Possibly,
by decreasing the
clustering of integrins at focal complexes, the cells
can move
faster [
1
].
Using mouse knockouts for a series of Src-family tyrosine kinases,
Lowells group have defined a signaling cascade leading from integrins
involving the adapter protein c-Cbl and PI 3-kinase that is required
for macrophage spreading upon a fibronectin substratum
[92
]. Thus it seems likely that PIP3 is once
again implicated in signaling, this time from activated integrins, to
the Rho proteins Cdc42 and Rac that regulate macrophage spreading via
focal complexes. A similar conclusion can be drawn from the observation
[16
, 17
] that p110
knockout mice retain
a greater number of leukocytes in the circulation, coupled with a
marked inability to migrate into tissues. This observation may suggest
that p110
is an important component of the signaling pathways that
regulate leukocyte selectin and integrin molecules. A description of
integrins is beyond the scope of this review, but a full discussion of
integrin signal transduction in myeloid cells has recently been
published [93
], as have descriptions of the role of Rho
proteins in cell adhesion [69
].

A ROLE FOR WASP
The generation of regulated immune responses is dependent on
the
ability of cells to migrate in response to integrated chemical
signals
[
94
]. In addition to the influx of neutrophils and
macrophages
to sites of inflammation, these processes are responsible
for
the relocation of dendritic cells from their surveillance positions
in
non-lymphoid tissue to the secondary lymphoid organs, and migration
of
lymphocytes into their specialized B and T cell zones
[
95
].
The cellular mechanisms that allow these
trafficking processes
to occur are, therefore, intimately related to
the regulation
of the cytoskeletal apparatus. Cells from WAS patients
can thus
provide natural models with which to answer some questions
about
cytoskeletal rearrangements and the migration of leukocytes
[
96
].
To investigate the role of WASP in generating cell polarization induced
by chemoattractants, we analyzed the chemotactic responses of WAS
macrophages to linear concentration gradients of CSF-1. Chemotaxis of
WAS macrophages to CSF-1 was found to be abolished, whereas normal
human macrophages show a strong chemotactic response to this cytokine
[97
]. However, the speed of cell motility was
indistinguishable from normal human cells. This result is reminiscent
of the findings for BAC1 cells exposed to gradient of CSF-1 in the
presence of TNF-
[31
] where the loss of filopodia is
linked to a failure to sense gradients of chemoattractant. Furthermore,
polymerization of actin on the ventral surfaces of WAS macrophages and
extension of filopodia and lamellipodia were severely compromised,
adding further support for the role of WASP as a physiological effector
for Cdc42 in hematopoietic cells [97
]. Similar
disturbances of WAS cell motility and cell polarization have been
reported from other laboratories [98
]. Because WASP is
expressed in all hematopoietic cells, similar abnormalities of cell
polarization and chemotaxis-driven trafficking may be apparent in other
hematopoietic lineages such as T lymphocytes [99
] and
dendritic cells [100
].

A POSSIBLE MODEL FOR MIGRATION AND CHEMOTAXIS
These data all suggest a pathway through which multiple signaling
cascades
activated by both serpentine and tyrosine kinase receptors
could
activate the actin polymerization required for cell migration
and
chemotaxis. From model systems [
18
] it seems that
proteins
with phosphoinositide-binding PH domains are selectively
recruited
to the leading edge of chemotaxing cells. This intracellular
asymmetric
distribution generates a much sharper gradient than the
causative
gradient of chemoattractant. The mechanism of recruitment of
PH-containing
proteins involves the production and degradation of
phosphoinositides,
especially PIP
3. Additional support for
this view comes from
mice deficient in SHIP (SH2-containing
inositol-5-phosphatase),
an enzyme that hydrolyzes PIP
3.
These mice suffer from a lethal
infiltration of the lungs by
macrophages and neutrophils, suggesting
that abnormal persistence of
the PIP
3 signal leads to excessive
leukocyte recruitment
and inflammation [
101
].
Polarized aggregation of serpentine chemotactic receptors to the
leading edge of migrating cells was previously thought to be the
mechanism by which the directional signaling to cells was maintained
[102
], but the application of more advanced imaging
techniques have discounted this otherwise attractive hypothesis
[103
] and it is now accepted that chemokine receptors
remain diffusely distributed over the cell surface
[104
]. These findings show that the continued sensing of
a gradient does not require an asymmetric localization or
redistribution of serpentine receptors, or indeed of the G-proteins
linked to these receptors [19
], but does involve
localized recruitment of PH domain-containing proteins
[18
].
How do macrophages respond to a gradient of CSF-1? Previous work on
BAC1 cells has shown that uniformly distributed CSF-1R is rapidly
endocytosed after stimulation with CSF-1 [30
] and that
no detectable CSF-1R re-appears on the surface for at least 2030 min
[105
]. This makes it most unlikely that the cells are
continuously sensing and responding to the gradient, as would be the
case with serpentine receptors. This hypothesis is supported by the
observation that a cell which initially lies directly downgradient to
another macrophage, thus sensing a distorted diffusion gradient,
appears to move persistently away from a source of CSF-1 even after
entering an area in which the normal gradient has been retained
[31
]. This observation suggests that initial receptor
activation is sufficient to generate cell polarization, which is
retained in the absence of further receptor availability. A possible
model for how macrophages polarize in response to gradients of CSF-1 is
considered here (Fig. 5
). The earliest response of rounded, cytokine-starved macrophages
to CSF-1 is rapid extension of filopodia and lamellipodia all around
the free margin of the cell, a response that is seen whether the CSF-1
is presented as an isotropic [30
] or gradient
[31
] stimulus. This initial response is followed by cell
spreading, reaching a maximum spread cell area within 5 min of addition
of CSF-1. It is likely that the gradient is detected during this
initial stage, and that the extension of filopodia is necessary for
this. The filopodia may act as sensing devices because they have a high
surface area with the potential to carry large numbers of CSF-1
receptors. When they later retract back into the cell as the spreading
process ensues, they may create a concentrated "hot spot" of
activated receptor that is subsequently endocytosed but still actively
signaling [106
]. The cell then senses the difference in
signal intensity between the up- and down-gradient ends of the cell,
and polarizes its actin cytoskeleton accordingly. Possibly, the sites
of filopodium retraction act as centers to drive the polarization,
recruiting further PH-domain containing proteins and actin-associated
proteins to the up-gradient hot spot. This asymmetric recruitment will
favor the formation of a dominant lamellipodia on the up-gradient face
of the spreading cell, which subsequently results in directed movement
up the cytokine gradient [107
]. Cdc42, in stimulating
the formation of filopodia, thereby initiates the process of gradient
detection. In the absence of Cdc42, the cells still migrate, but not in
response to the gradient of chemoattractant. The extent of cell
polarization is far less and the cells remain quite rounded
[8
]. It is likely that this latter behavior is due to a
stochastic process of lamellipodial extension [1
].

FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Clearly there is still a long way to go before we have a
comprehensive
description of cell polarization, motility, migration,
and chemotaxis.
Although the identification of Rho family proteins as
key regulators
of the actin cytoskeleton was a stunning breakthrough,
the precise
means by which Rho proteins control the formation and
breakdown
of filopodia, lamellipodia, and cell adhesion to the
substratum
is far from well understood. Similarly, although many
examples
in the literature support a generalized role for Cdc42 in
generating
cell polarization [
108
], precisely how this
is achieved is
currently only a subject of active research rather than
detailed
modeling. As far as chemotaxis is concerned, the recent
evidence
pointing to a critical role for lipid signaling and PH
domain-containing
proteins in creating the asymmetric response after
ligand binding
to both serpentine and tyrosine kinase surface receptors
serves
as the foundation for work to identify the cellular targets
that
actually generate asymmetric cellular extensions. Finally,
it would be
facile to assume that the signal transduction pathways
discussed in
this review act in isolation: any suggestion that
separate linear
pathways lead to the biological response under
investigation is an
oversimplification. Instead, complex interdependent
signaling networks
must be involved and the untangling of these
networks must be the focus
of future work. The genetic tools
that allow us to visualize the
chemotaxis-induced redistribution
of PH domain-containing proteins and
cytoskeleton-associated
proteins in living cells are now being
developed. Together with
the use of mutant cells with defects in
chemotaxis this approach
will undoubtedly contribute dramatically to
our future understanding
of cell polarization and chemotaxis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by grants from the UK Medical Research
Council,
The Wellcome Trust, and the Arthritis Research Campaign. I
thank
Graham Dunn (Randall Centre, London), Anne Ridley (Ludwig
Institute,
London), and Adrian Thrasher (Institute of Child Health,
London)
for numerous stimulating discussions.

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